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Furthermore, high expression of GRPR has been observed in several other types of cancer, although further details on these findings are beyond the scope of this discussion. Cancer Imaging volume 24 , Article number: 19 Cite this article.
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This integration harnesses the respective advantages of PET and CT, maximizing their potential [ 46 , 47 ]. The findings revealed that GRPR could stimulate the breakdown of inositol phosphate, induce changes in intracellular calcium levels, increase MAPK phosphorylation, promote cell growth, trigger trans-activation of EGFR in specific lung cancer cell lines, and influence cell signaling and growth. Currently, all GRPRs are characterized as G-protein-coupled receptors with seven transmembrane domains.
When these peptides bind to GRPR, they initiate downstream signaling cascades and activate various physiological and biological effects, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and mitosis [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Consequently, receptor-targeted imaging has emerged as an appealing alternative for achieving highly specific and sensitive diagnosis of primary and metastatic diseases. Subsequent experiments have demonstrated that pro-GRP can not only be utilized in the early diagnosis of SCLC but also aid in assessing treatment effectiveness and detecting tumor recurrence in a timely manner [ 45 ].
The C-terminal peptide sequence of GRP shares high similarity with the amphibious peptide bombesin, a amino acid peptide that exhibits high affinity for GRPR and the neuromedin B receptor. Hence, there is a critical need for non-invasive and reliable methods to diagnose and stage these cancers. Notably, the expression of GRPRs was predominantly observed within the neoplastic breast epithelial cells, exhibiting a high density but an uneven distribution [ 29 ].
For instance, it regulates gastrointestinal movement and gastric emptying, as well as induces smooth muscle contraction [ 14 ]. As a result, molecular imaging studies have been conducted using radiolabeled GRPR ligands for tumor diagnosis, as well as monitoring of recurrence and metastasis. Furthermore, PC and BC are associated with substantial morbidity and mortality, especially during the metastatic stage [ 53 ].
Biopsies, which are often inconclusive, can cause patient discomfort, anxiety, and increased medical costs [ 54 , 55 ]. It is highly expressed in various cancers, including prostate cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, and so on. Metrics details. It has as extensive applications in oncology, cardiovascular diseases, neurology, and other fields, providing vital diagnostic information for physiological and pathological conditions.
Furthermore, GRPR plays a role in the regulation of trypsin release [ 17 ] and is involved in immune responses [ 18 , 19 ].
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Other intracellular mediators activated by GRPRs include mitogen-activated protein kinases, adhesion kinases, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases, and, in certain cases, cyclic AMP response element binding proteins Fig. GRPR is involved in various physiological mechanisms within the human body. This retrospective study included 28 patients with PC. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples were used for diagnosis.
Kom dock ihåg att ords betydelse beror ofta på sammanhanget, så är även fallet med ordet göra PR varför man bör se till så att de synonymer man hittat faktiskt passar till den kontext i vilken du vill använda dem. GRPR is a type of seven-transmembrane G-protein coupled receptor that belongs to the bombesin protein receptor family. Gugger et al. In this paper, we provided a comprehensive overview of relevant literature from the past two decades, with a specific focus on the advancements made in radiolabeled GRPR ligands for imaging prostate cancer and breast cancer.
The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether prostate cancer (PC) patients can be accurately classified on the bases of tissue expression of gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) and prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA). Other types of cancer are rarely reported or only briefly described. Immunohistochemistry staining. Concurrently, computer tomography enables precise localization of uptake of the PET emitter, thereby offering comprehensive visualization of the physiological and metabolic functions of major human organs.
In a study by Paola et al. T ex kan man använda ordet göra reklam istället för göra PR, vilket gör dem till synonymer. These pathways are implicated in both cell proliferation and cell migration. These observations strongly suggested that GRPR may serve as a molecular marker for precancerous changes in PC [ 42 ]. Notably, apart from the pancreas and gastrointestinal tract, there is minimal physiological expression of GRPR in other tissues [ 37 ].
Endogenous gastrin release is stimulated by activating sensory neurons in the gastric mucosa [ 15 , 16 ]. Additionally, the activation of GRPR was found to enhance the survival of lung cancer cells exposed to tyrosine kinase inhibitors TKIs [ 36 ]. The binding of the ligand e. In a study conducted by Halmos et al. In the following section, we make a concise overview of GRPR expression in several common tumors.
GRPR is predominantly expressed in the majority of BCs, while it is not detected in normal breast epithelial cells [ 36 ]. In hyperplastic prostate glands, GRPR was only detected in a few instances, and its density was substantially lower in glandular tissues, primarily localized in certain interstitial tissues [ 26 ]. With permission, from Ref. GRPR has garnered significant interest in the fields of oncology and nuclear medicine due to its high-density expression in various cancers, including prostate cancer PC [ 26 , 27 , 28 ], breast cancer BC [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ], small cell lung cancer SCLC [ 33 ], gastrinoma, gastrointestinal stromal tumors [ 34 , 35 ], and other cancers [ 36 ].
The expression of GRPR in lung cancer has been extensively studied. The primary signaling cascade involves the activation of phospholipase C PLC , resulting in intracellular calcium changes, the production of diacylglycerol, and the activation of protein kinase C PKCs [ 2 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. In addition to these functions, GRPR is implicated in certain brain functions such as the regulation of circadian rhythm [ 20 , 21 ], memory [ 22 ], and the modulation of stress, fear, and anxiety [ 23 , 24 , 25 ].
Over the past two decades, extensive studies were focused on various types of cancer, with particular emphasis on PC and BC, as these two cancers have the highest incidence rates among men and women, respectively, in western countries.